United Nations. 2018 Revision of World Urbanization Prospects 2018 [Available from: https://www.un.org/development/desa/publications/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html.
United Nations. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2018). The World’s Cities in 2018—Data Booklet (ST/ESA/ SER.A/417). 2018. p. 2. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdf.
Satterthwaite D. Will most people live in cities? BMJ (Clinical Res Ed). 2000;321(7269):1143–5.
Hawkins A. The grey wall of China: inside the world’s concrete superpower. The Guardian. 2019;2019:28.
Ellis LD, Badel AF, Chiang ML, Park RJY, Chiang YM. Toward electrochemical synthesis of cement—An electrolyzer-based process for decarbonating CaCO3 while producing useful gas streams. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2020;117(23):12584–91.
Ezzati M, Webster CJ, Doyle YG, Rashid S, Owusu G, Leung GM. Cities for global health. BMJ. 2018;363: k3794.
Vlahov D, Fraudenberg N, Proietti F, Ompad D, Quinn A, Nandi V, Galea S. Urban as a determinant of health. J Urban Health. 2007;84(SUPPL.1):i16–26.
Dodman D. Blaming cities for climate change? An analysis of urban greenhouse gas emissions inventories. Environ Urban. 2009;21(1):185–201.
Montgomery C. Happy City: Transforming Our Lives Through Urban Design. Kindle. New York: Penguin; 2013.
Sureda X, Villalbí JR, Espelt A, Franco M. Living under the influence: normalisation of alcohol consumption in our cities. Gac Sanit. 2017;31(1):66–8.
Kuddus MA, Tynan E, McBryde E. Urbanization: a problem for the rich and the poor? Public Health Rev. 2020;41(1):1.
United Nations. Policy Brief: COVID-19 in an Urban World 2020 [Available from: https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/sg_policy_brief_covid_urban_world_july_2020.pdf.
Colenbrander S. Cities as engines of economic growth The case for providing basic infrastructure and services in urban areas 2016 [Available from: https://pubs.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/10801IIED.pdf.
Dye C. Health and urban living. Science. 2008;319(5864):766–9.
Lancet T. A commission on climate change. The Lancet. 2009;373(9676):1659.
Wight J, Middleton J. Climate change: the greatest public health threat of the century. BMJ. 2019;365: l2371.
Watts N, Adger WN, Agnolucci P, Blackstock J, Byass P, Cai W, et al. Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health. The Lancet. 2015;386(10006):1861–914.
Watts N, Amann M, Arnell N, Ayeb-Karlsson S, Belesova K, Boykoff M, et al. The 2019 report of the lancet countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate. The Lancet. 1836;2019:394.
Robertson D. Inside Copenhagen’s race to be the first carbon-neutral city. The Guardian. 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/oct/11/inside-copenhagens-race-to-be-the-first-carbon-neutral-city. Accessed 17 June 2021.
Naylor C, Buck D. The role of cities in improving population health: international insights: Kings Fund; 2018 [Available from: https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/sites/default/files/2018-06/Role_cities_population_health_Kings_Fund_June_2018_0.pdf.
Davies SC. Annual report of the chief medical officer 2019 [Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/chief-medical-officer-annual-report-2019-partnering-for-progress.
Danielli S, Coffey T, Ashrafian H, Darzi A. Systematic review into city interventions to address obesity. EClinicalMedicine. 2021;32:100710.
Diller P. Why do Cities innovate in public health? Implications of scale and structure 2014 [Available from: https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=6092&context=law_lawreview.
Barber B. If Mayors Ruled the World. Connecticut: Yale University Press; Reprint edition (September 30, 2014); 2014.
Hoornweg D, Pope K. Population predictions for the world’s largest cities in the 21st century. Environ Urban. 2016;29(1):195–216.
Theis D, White M. Is obesity policy in England fit for purpose? Analysis of government strategies and policies, 1992–2020. Milbank Q. 2021;99(1):126–70.
Frenk J. Health and the economy. Harvard Int Rev. 2014;35(4):62–4.
Tricco AC, Lillie E, Zarin W, O’Brien KK, Colquhoun H, Levac D, et al. PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation. Ann Intern Med. 2018;169(7):467–73.
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Group P. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):e1000097-e.
World Statistics Organisation. Population of Localities 2018 [Available from: https://world-statistics.org/index-pop.php.
Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol. 2006;3(2):77–101.
Miller N, Frieden ThomasR, Liu SzeYan, Matte ThomasD, Mastashari Farzad, Deitcher DeborahR, Cummings K, Chang Christina, Bauer Ursula, Bassett MaryT. Effectiveness of a large-scale distribution programme of free nicotine patches: A prospective evaluation. The Lancet. 2005;365(9474):1849–54.
Peñalvo JL, Sotos-Prieto M, Santos-Beneit G, Pocock S, Redondo J, Fuster V. The program SI! intervention for enhancing a healthy lifestyle in preschoolers: first results from a cluster randomized trial. BMC Public Health. 2013;13(1):1.
Tsung-Mei C. Explaining Shanghai’s health care reforms, successes and challenges. Health Affairs. 2013;32(12):2199–205.
Sturm R, Cohen DA. Zoning For Health? The Year-Old Ban On New Fast-Food Restaurants In South LA. Health Affairs. 2009;28:w1088-NaN.
Whitelaw N, Warden G, Wenzler MR. Current efforts toward implementation of an urban health strategy: The Henry Ford Health System. J Urban Health. 1998;75(2):356–66.
Yen MY, Wu TSJ, Chiu AWH, Wong WW, Wang PE, Chan TC, King CC. Taipei’s use of a multi-channel mass risk communication program to rapidly reverse an epidemic of highly communicable disease. PLoS ONE. 2009;4(11):e7962.
Tran AD. Addressing eating habits through food label education in Stevenson, WA. J Investig Med. 2010;58(1):204.
Feyerherm L, Tibbits M, Wang H, Schram S, Balluff M. Partners for a healthy city: implementing policies and environmental changes within organizations to promote health. Am J Public Health. 2014;104(7):1165–8.
Sacks RY, S. S.; Nonas, C. Increasing access to fruits and vegetables: perspectives from the New York City experience. American journal of public health. 2015;105(5):e29-e37.
Duncan BR. New healthcare model: Citywide care management. Otolaryngol – Head Neck Surg (United States). 2012;147:P125.
Coady MH, Chan CA, Auer K, Farley SM, Kilgore EA, Kansagra SM. Awareness and impact of New York City’s graphic point-of-sale tobacco health warning signs. Tobacco Control. 2012.
Weinstein I. Eighty years of public health in New York City. Bull N Y Acad Med. 1947;23(4):221–37.
de Salazar L. Linking public health surveillance systems to program effectiveness evaluation. Colombia Medica. 2011;42(3):342–51.
House of Lords. Third report of the select committee of the house of lords on metropolitan hospitals. The Lancet. 1892;140(3592):49–52. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(01)97445-8/fulltext. (Kings Fund library on 16 November 2022).
Kickbusch I, Allen L, Franz C. The commercial determinants of health. Lancet Glob Health. 2016;4(12):e895–6.
Wainwright NWJ, Surtees PG, Welch AA, Luben RN, Khaw K-T, Bingham SA. Healthy lifestyle choices: could sense of coherence aid health promotion? J Epidemiol Community Health. 2007;61(10):871–6.
Nana-Goar Pogosova NE, A.; Ausheva, A. Evaluation of the efficacy of cardiovascular prevention in the framework of the World Heart Day. European Journal of Preventive Cardiology. 2015 (1);S115.
Taing D, McKay K. Better Strength, Better Balance! Partnering to deliver a fall prevention program for older adults. Can J Public Health. 2017;108(3):e314-e319. https://doi.org/10.17269/CJPH.108.5901.
Economos CDH, R. R.; Must, A.; Goldberg, J. P.; Kuder, J.; Naumova, E. N.; Collins, J. J.; Nelson, M. E. Shape Up Somerville two-year results: A community-based environmental change intervention sustains weight reduction in children. Preventive medicine. 2013; 57(4):[322–7 pp.]. Available from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/o/cochrane/clcentral/articles/426/CN-00910426/frame.html; http://ac.els-cdn.com/S009174351300193X/1-s2.0-S009174351300193X-main.pdf?_tid=b201df18-cfe8-11e5-9735-00000aab0f6c&acdnat=1455103583_2cfe0f0018bc97c80ed35598a603b6cf.
Sekhobo J, Edmunds L, Dalenius K, Jernigan J, Davis C, Giddings M, et al. Neighborhood disparities in prevalence of childhood obesity among low-income children before and after implementation of New York City child care regulations. Prev Chronic Dis. 2014;11:E181.
Page RL, Slejko JF, Libby AM. A citywide smoking ban reduced maternal smoking and risk for preterm births: a colorado natural experiment. J Women’s Health. 2012;21(6):621–7.
Cesaroni G, Forastiere F, Agabiti N, Valente P, Zuccaro P, Perucci CA. Effect of the Italian smoking ban on population rates of acute coronary events. Circulation. 2008;117(9):1183–8.
Bartecchi C, Alsever RN, Nevin-Woods C, Thomas WM, Estacio RO, Bartelson BB, Krantz MJ. Reduction in the incidence of acute myocardial infarction associated with a citywide smoking ordinance. Circulation. 2006;114(14):1490–6.
Barreto ML, Genser B, Strina A, Teixeira MG, Assis AMO, Rego RF, Teles CA, Prado MS, Matos SM, Santos DN, dos Santos LA, Cairncross S. Effect of city wide sanitation programme on reduction in rate of childhood diarrhoea in northeast Brazil: assessment by two cohort studies. Lancet. 2007;370(9599):1622–8.
Cutler D, Miller G. The role of public health improvements in health advances: the twentieth-century United States. Demography. 2005;42(1):1–22.
Ogasawara K, Shirota S, Kobayashi G. Public health improvements and mortality in interwar Tokyo: a Bayesian disease mapping approach. Cliometrica. 2018;12(1):1–31.
Huitema BE, Van Houten R, Manal H. Time-series intervention analysis of pedestrian countdown timer effects. Accident Analys Prev. 2014;72:23–31.
Muennig PA, Epstein M, Li G, DiMaggio C. The cost-effectiveness of New York City’s safe routes to school program. Am J Public Health. 2014;104(7):1294–9.
Rojas-Rueda D, de Nazelle Audrey, Tainio Marko, Nieuwenhuijsen MarkJ. The health risks and benefits of cycling in urban environments compared with car use: health impact assessment study. BMJ: Brit Med J. 2011;343(7819):1–8.
Tapia V, Carbajal L, Vásquez V, Espinoza R, Vásquez-Velásquez C, Steenland K, et al. Traffic regulation and environmental pollution by particulate material (2.5 and 10), sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide in Metropolitan Lima, Peru. Rev Peru Med Exp Salud Publica. 2018;35(2):190–7.
Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Khreis H. Car free cities: pathway to healthy urban living. Environ Int. 2016;94:251–62.
Marcolino M, Brant LC, de Guimaraes C, de Araujo JG, Nascimento BR, Castro LR, Martins P, Lodi-Junqueira L, Ribeiro AL. The implementation of the myocardial infarction system of care in a large city in Brazil. Global Heart. 2014;9(1):193.
Hunter RM, Davie C, Rudd A, Thompson A, Walker H, Thomson N, Mountford J, Schwamm L, Deanfield J, Thompson K, Dewan B, Mistry M, Quoraishi S, Morris S. Impact on clinical and cost outcomes of a centralized approach to acute stroke care in London: a comparative effectiveness before and after model. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(8):e70420 ([Electronic Resource]).
Jozaghi EA, Martin A. Should North America’s first and only supervised injection facility (InSite) be expanded in British Columbia, Canada? Harm Reduct J. 2013;10:1.
Rea RLJ, Gregory S, Prescott D, Gray T, Warren A, Hannah J, Langeland L, Dhindsa P, Tan G. First diabetes: A successful integrated healthcare partnership for diabetes patients in Derby. Diab Med. 2012;29:94.
Tanaka M. Medical care networks for dementia patients. Jap Med Assoc J. 2013;56(4):240–5.
Ong PLG, Demmer R. Evaluating the influence of bloomberg era policy on New York city cardiovascular disease mortality rates. Circulation Conference: American Heart Association’s Epidemiology and Prevention/Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health. 2015;131(Suppl_1):(Supplement 1):AMP08.
Foulkes C. Lessons from healthy together geelong: Delivering systems change at scale across two levels of government. Obes Res Clin Pract. 2014;8:33.
Roset-Elias MA, Cardena-Franquet E, Puigdueta-Lucas I, Obea-Maso M. What a city council can do to improve the quality of life in the elderly? Ann Nutr Metab. 1846;2013:63.
Yu LH. Cancer prevention and therapy in Taipei city. Int J Urol. 2010;17:A17–8.
Alanqoudi Z, Alhinai S. Nizwa healthy lifestyle project evaluation report 2010. 2010. https://www.emro.who.int/health-education/physical-activity-case-studies/the-nizwa-healthy-lifestyles-project-oman.html. Accessed 10 Apr 2021.
Cecchini M, Sassi F, Lauer JA, Lee YY, Guajardo-Barron V, Chisholm D. Tackling of unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, and obesity: health effects and cost-effectiveness. The Lancet. 2010;376(9754):1775–84.
Key TJ, Bradbury KE, Perez-Cornago A, Sinha R, Tsilidis KK, Tsugane S. Diet, nutrition, and cancer risk: what do we know and what is the way forward? BMJ. 2020;368: m511.
Afshin A, Sur PJ, Fay KA, Cornaby L, Ferrara G, Salama JS, et al. Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017. The Lancet. 2019;393(10184):1958–72.
Lancet T. The link between cancer and obesity. The Lancet. 2017;390(10104):1716.
Carbone S, Canada JM, Billingsley HE, Siddiqui MS, Elagizi A, Lavie CJ. Obesity paradox in cardiovascular disease: where do we stand? Vascular Health Risk Management. 2019;15:89–100.
Sarwer DB, Polonsky HM. The Psychosocial Burden of obesity. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2016;45(3):677–88.
Kivimäki M, Lawlor DA, Singh-Manoux A, Batty GD, Ferrie JE, Shipley MJ, et al. Common mental disorder and obesity: insight from four repeat measures over 19 years: prospective Whitehall II cohort study. BMJ. 2009;339: b3765.
World Health Organization. Preventing chronic diseases : a vital investment : WHO global report. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2005.
Sheffield PE, Herrera M, Kinnee EJ, Clougherty JE. Not so little differences: variation in hot weather risk to young children in New York City. Public Health. 2018;161:119–26.
Sewe MO, Bunker A, Ingole V, Egondi T, Åström DO, Hondula DM, et al. Estimated effect of temperature on years of life lost: A retrospective time-series study of low-, middle-, and high-income regions. Environ Health Perspect. 2018;126(1):017004.
Frumkin H, Haines A. Global environmental change and noncommunicable disease risks. Annu Rev Public Health. 2019;40(1):261–82.
Rosenthal JK, Sclar ED, Kinney PL, Knowlton K, Crauderueff R, Brandt-Rauf PW. Links between the built environment, climate and population health: interdisciplinary environmental change research in New York City. Ann Acad Med Singap. 2007;36(10):834–46.
Xiong X, Zhang L, Hao Y, Zhang P, Chang Y, Liu G. Urban dietary changes and linked carbon footprint in China: a case study of Beijing. J Environ Manage. 2020;255: 109877.
Swinburn BA, Kraak VI, Allender S, Atkins VJ, Baker PI, Bogard JR, et al. The global syndemic of obesity, undernutrition, and climate change: the lancet commission report. Lancet. 2019;393(10173):791–846.
Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B, Springmann M, Lang T, Vermeulen S, et al. Food in the anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. The Lancet. 2019;393(10170):447–92.
Macdonald L, Olsen JR, Shortt NK, Ellaway A. Do ‘environmental bads’ such as alcohol, fast food, tobacco, and gambling outlets cluster and co-locate in more deprived areas in Glasgow City, Scotland? Health Place. 2018;51:224–31.
Stuckler D, McKee M, Ebrahim S, Basu S. Manufacturing epidemics: the role of global producers in increased consumption of unhealthy commodities including processed foods, alcohol, and tobacco. PLoS Med. 2012;9(6): e1001235.
Fisher HH, Hoyte T, Purcell DW, van Handel M, Williams W, Krueger A, Dietz P, Stratford D, Heitgerd J, Dunbar E, Wan C, Linley LA, Flores SA. Health department HIV prevention programs that support the national HIV/AIDS strategy: The enhanced comprehensive HIV prevention planning project, 2010–2013. Public Health Reports. 2016;131(1):185–94.
Evans C, Suggs LS, Turner K, Occa A, Juma A, Blake H. Mobile phone messaging to promote uptake of HIV testing among migrant African communities in the UK. Health Educ J. 2018;78(1):24–37.
Ard KL, Edelstein ZR, Bolduc P, Daskalakis D, Gandhi AD, Krakower DS, et al. Public health detailing for human immunodeficiency virus pre-exposure prophylaxis. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68(5):860–4.
Lam CK, McGinnis Pilote K, Haque A, Burzynski J, Chuck C, Macaraig M. Using video technology to increase treatment completion for patients with latent tuberculosis infection on 3-month isoniazid and rifapentine: an implementation study. J Med Internet Res. 2018;20(11): e287.
Qader G, Hamim A, Sayedi M, Rashidi M, Manzoor L, Seddiq MK, et al. Addressing tuberculosis control in fragile states: Urban DOTS experience in Kabul, Afghanistan, 2009–2015. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(5): e0178053.
Tabuchi T, Takatorige T, Hirayama Y, Nakata N, Harihara S, Shimouchi A, et al. Tuberculosis infection among homeless persons and caregivers in a high-tuberculosis-prevalence area in Japan: a cross-sectional study. BMC Infect Dis. 2011;11(1):22.
Patanavanich R, Glantz SA. Smoking is associated with worse outcomes of COVID-19 particularly among younger adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1554.
Finlay I, Gilmore I. Covid-19 and alcohol—a dangerous cocktail. BMJ. 2020;369: m1987.
Butler MJ, Barrientos RM. The impact of nutrition on COVID-19 susceptibility and long-term consequences. Brain Behav Immun. 2020;87:53–4.
Sallis R, Young DR, Tartof SY, Sallis JF, Sall J, Li Q, et al. Physical inactivity is associated with a higher risk for severe COVID-19 outcomes: a study in 48 440 adult patients. Br J Sports Med. 2021;55(19):1099–105.
Travaglio M, Yu Y, Popovic R, Selley L, Leal NS, Martins LM. Links between air pollution and COVID-19 in England. Environ Pollut. 2021;268: 115859.
Clark CE, McDonagh STJ, McManus RJ, Martin U. COVID-19 and hypertension: risks and management. A scientific statement on behalf of the British and Irish hypertension society. J Human Hyper. 2021;35(4):304–7.
Gao M, Piernas C, Astbury NM, Hippisley-Cox J, O’Rahilly S, Aveyard P, et al. Associations between body-mass index and COVID-19 severity in 6·9 million people in England: a prospective, community-based, cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2021;9(6):350–9.
Gibb R, Redding DW, Chin KQ, Donnelly CA, Blackburn TM, Newbold T, et al. Zoonotic host diversity increases in human-dominated ecosystems. Nature. 2020;584(7821):398–402.
Broom D. This is how we prevent future pandemics, say 22 leading scientists: World Economic Forum; 2020 [Available from: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/11/covid-19-pandemics-nature-scientists/?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=2737721_Agenda_weekly-4December2020&utm_term=&emailType=Newsletter.
Mays N, Pope C, Popay J. Systematically reviewing qualitative and quantitative evidence to inform management and policy-making in the health field. J Health Serv Res Policy. 2005;10(Suppl 1):6–20.
Strech D, Tilburt J. Value judgments in the analysis and synthesis of evidence. J Clin Epidemiol. 2008;61(6):521–4.
Healthier Societies for Healthy Populations Group. Healthier societies for healthy populations. The Lancet. 2020;395(10239):1747–9.
